I have learned 12 principles in chapter 4. Among these principles, I would like to mention about principal 3 (the anticipation of reward). I strongly agree with the definition that human beings are universally driven to act, or behave, by the anticipation of some sort of reward- tangible or intangible or long-term- that will ensure as a result of the behavior, but it has mainly three problems. First, it makes students become dependent on short term rewards. Second, it coaxes them into a habit of looking to teachers and others for their only rewards. Third, it forestalls the development of their own internally administered, intrinsic system of rewards.
When I was a junior high school student, I often use this principle. I promised with my parents that if I got a good score on test, they gave me prize such as video game. In Japan there are a lot of parents who give some prizes if their child got good score, even though it is more effective to have intrinsic motivation. They never know that intrinsic motivation is better than extrinsic motivation.
Monday, September 29, 2008
Sunday, September 21, 2008
Second language acquisition
In 1960s, Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) was proposed. According to this hypothesis, errors were often thought to be the result of transfer from learners’ first language. It means that second language acquisition is filtered through the learner’s first language. If the native language is similar to the target language, second language acquisition will be easier. On the other hand, if the native language is dissimilar to target language, it will be harder to acquire target language. However, many aspects of learner’s language could not be explained by CAH. For example, idiomatic or metaphorical expression that learner made cannot be transferred word for word.
Since CAH was criticized, many researchers tried to take different approach. In 1970s, error analysis became popular. The difference between CAH and error analysis is that error analysis did not focus on predicting errors but discovering or describing different kinds of errors. However it did not give us clear insight because it ignored the strategy of avoidance that learner often do.
Selinker (1972) proposed the notion of interlanguage. A core of his construct is the notion that interlanguage can function independently of speaker’s native language or the target language. He also showed the existence of fossilization, which is plateau of language learning.
Today, researchers believe CAH’s weak version (that CAH can explain the cause of many, but far from all, systematic language learning errors) rather than strong version (that CAH can explain all learning problems). Even though CAH cannot explain all learning problems that learner has, I think it is very useful in EFL settings. In EFL settings, the group of students is homogeneous. In other word, they share the native language, so we can construct the specific hierarchy of difficulties that learners have by applying CAH. I think it will help a lot.
Since CAH was criticized, many researchers tried to take different approach. In 1970s, error analysis became popular. The difference between CAH and error analysis is that error analysis did not focus on predicting errors but discovering or describing different kinds of errors. However it did not give us clear insight because it ignored the strategy of avoidance that learner often do.
Selinker (1972) proposed the notion of interlanguage. A core of his construct is the notion that interlanguage can function independently of speaker’s native language or the target language. He also showed the existence of fossilization, which is plateau of language learning.
Today, researchers believe CAH’s weak version (that CAH can explain the cause of many, but far from all, systematic language learning errors) rather than strong version (that CAH can explain all learning problems). Even though CAH cannot explain all learning problems that learner has, I think it is very useful in EFL settings. In EFL settings, the group of students is homogeneous. In other word, they share the native language, so we can construct the specific hierarchy of difficulties that learners have by applying CAH. I think it will help a lot.
Reflection on class
During the class, we have experienced the activity that is kind of information gap (we have card on the each back). In that activity, we could enjoy the game and also reviewed what we had learned in the reading assignments. I reconfirmed that studying must be enjoyable in order to make students concentrate on the task and keep their motivation. Speaking of motivation, in our group’s multi-genre research paper, we decided to focus on motivation in second language learning. It was extremely difficult for me to find out which reference is appropriate for our research. I thought that it is needed for us to sophisticate the references.
We have also discussed that what kinds of bilingualism we go through. According to the book of L & S, we can classify bilinguals into two. First is simultaneous bilinguals, who learn more than one language from earliest childhood. Second is sequential bilinguals, who learn another language later. In my case, as ordinary Japanese, I experienced sequential bilingual process because foreign language education starts from junior high school (from13 years old) in Japan. Nowadays, the ministry of education of Japan tries to introduce English in elementary school in order to create bilinguals. This is the highly controversial new plan. In my opinion, I strongly disagree with the new plan because there is no professional teacher who can teach English in elementary school in Japan. If the ministry of education would like to introduce teaching English, it is necessary to train the teachers who are professional of teaching English in elementary school.
We have also discussed that what kinds of bilingualism we go through. According to the book of L & S, we can classify bilinguals into two. First is simultaneous bilinguals, who learn more than one language from earliest childhood. Second is sequential bilinguals, who learn another language later. In my case, as ordinary Japanese, I experienced sequential bilingual process because foreign language education starts from junior high school (from13 years old) in Japan. Nowadays, the ministry of education of Japan tries to introduce English in elementary school in order to create bilinguals. This is the highly controversial new plan. In my opinion, I strongly disagree with the new plan because there is no professional teacher who can teach English in elementary school in Japan. If the ministry of education would like to introduce teaching English, it is necessary to train the teachers who are professional of teaching English in elementary school.
Monday, September 15, 2008
Brief history of language teaching
I will focus on history of teaching pronunciation because I am very interested in it. In language teaching, grammer and vocabulary have been forcused more than pronunciation (Classical method, Grammer translation method).
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Direct method was popular. In this method, the pronunciation was taught through the intuition and imitation, because natural way for children to acquire thier first language. And then, Naturalistic method, including Total physical response and Natural approach, were proposed. In these methods, teacher have students just listen and give them many inputs till students are ready to speak with a petty good pronunciation.
In the 1940s and 1950s, two approaches were proposed, Audiolingualism in the United States and Oral Approach in Britain. Sine both approaches are influenced by reform movement.
In the 1960s, Cognitive code learning was proposed. This approach viewed languages as rule-governed behavior rather than habit formation. That is why pronunciation deemphasized.
In the 1970s, disigner methods such as silent way and community language learning were proposed. In the community language learning, this is client-centered lerning, which means that students can completely control what they study. Futhermore, teacher's function is human computer, which also means that students can ask whatever they want. If we want to use this approach, teachers have to be bilingual because students ask with thier native language and teacher translate with target language.
In the 1980s Communicative approach was proposed. In this approach, the aim is of course to teach how to communicate. The main purpose is to provide students with intelligible pronunciation. Traditionally the focus of teaching pronunciation has sifted from segmental features to suprasegmental features, and nowadys we focus on both features because both features are important in order to learn intelligible pronunciation.
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Direct method was popular. In this method, the pronunciation was taught through the intuition and imitation, because natural way for children to acquire thier first language. And then, Naturalistic method, including Total physical response and Natural approach, were proposed. In these methods, teacher have students just listen and give them many inputs till students are ready to speak with a petty good pronunciation.
In the 1940s and 1950s, two approaches were proposed, Audiolingualism in the United States and Oral Approach in Britain. Sine both approaches are influenced by reform movement.
In the 1960s, Cognitive code learning was proposed. This approach viewed languages as rule-governed behavior rather than habit formation. That is why pronunciation deemphasized.
In the 1970s, disigner methods such as silent way and community language learning were proposed. In the community language learning, this is client-centered lerning, which means that students can completely control what they study. Futhermore, teacher's function is human computer, which also means that students can ask whatever they want. If we want to use this approach, teachers have to be bilingual because students ask with thier native language and teacher translate with target language.
In the 1980s Communicative approach was proposed. In this approach, the aim is of course to teach how to communicate. The main purpose is to provide students with intelligible pronunciation. Traditionally the focus of teaching pronunciation has sifted from segmental features to suprasegmental features, and nowadys we focus on both features because both features are important in order to learn intelligible pronunciation.
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